European imperialism Essay

Mortimer Chambers et al define imperialism as a European state’s intervention in and continuing domination over a non-European territory. During the ‘Scramble for Africa’ in the late nineteenth century, the most powerful European nations desired to conquer, dominate and exploit African colonies with the hope of building an empire. According to Derrick Murphy, in 1875 only ten percent of Africa was occupied by European states. Twenty years later only ten percent remained unoccupied. There were several factors which attracted European imperialists to Africa. There were opportunities for profitable investment and trade. Raw materials, which Africa possessed in abundance, were also desired. A cheap source of labour was required as it would result in higher profits. In addition, there was international rivalry among European nations. Domestic political interests and social Darwinism may also be blamed for attracting European imperialism to Africa. European imperialists were lured to Africa by the potential economic benefits she possessed. Industrialization caused a mass productivity and there became an artificial need for foreign markets to invest in. According to Brian Levack et al, with the onset of economic decline in 1873 industrialists were faced with a declining demand for their products in Europe. Imperial expansion, it was thought, would provide a solution with annexed territories seen as captive markets. It was believed that the unfavorable balance of trade that Britain and other industrial countries were experiencing could be counterbalanced by the income from overseas investments. Also, surplus capital could be profitably invested in Africa where cheap labour and limited competition would result in higher profits. Prominent European imperialists decided to use the public resources of their country to find lucrative means of using their capital. The English radical economist J.A. Hobson, argues that the intention was to level out inequalities of wealth to increase domestic consumption. Local merchants, traders and bankers were optimistic towards the idea of imperial expansion and capital investments outside of Europe became an increasingly vital sector of its economy. There was an increasing demand for raw materials in Europe in the late nineteenth century. According to Brian Levack, the new technologies characteristic of the industrial revolution meant that industrial Europe  became increasingly dependent on raw materials. European nations felt the urge to control lands that possessed great quantities of raw materials. Africa was rich with raw materials as well as many treasure reserves. As a result, many major industrial companies attempted to gain a monopoly of raw materials in Africa. Stuart Miller believes that specific trade links were important to particular industries. Some raw materials in Africa were of great importance; the vegetable oil of the Niger was vital for lubricating industrial machinery and the rubber of the Congo was not only essential for the tires on the new automobiles but also for insulating the electrical and telegraph wires now encircling the globe. The plentiful elephant herds could be slaughtered to provide the ivory for many of the new consumer goods such as piano keys, billiard balls and knife handles. In Togoland, Germans were able to cultivate plantations where they grew cocoa and rubber. Other raw materials included peanuts, cotton and tea. There were also many important minerals and South Africa possessed gold and diamonds. International rivalry among European nations contributed greatly to imperialist ventures in Africa. Britain’s rivalry with France and Germany accounted for a large part of the colonization. The British government wished to maintain its dominance in the colonial regions. Other European powers desired to expand their colonial spheres as well and Britain responded by seizing colonies. Certain territories were important for their location. The Suez Canal was key waterway between East and West Africa. The immense interior between the gold and diamond rich Southern Africa and Egypt had a strategic value as domination of this region was important to secure the flow of overseas trade. The British wanted to link their possessions in Southern Africa with their territories in East Africa, and these two areas with the Nile basin. Obtaining the Sudan was vital to the fulfillment of these ambitions especially since Egypt was already under British control. This ‘red-line’ through Africa was made famous by Cecil Rhodes and Lord Milner who advocated for a ‘Cape to Cairo’ empire linking by rail the Suez Canal to the Southern part which possessed many minerals. According to Brian Levack, there was also a certain level of nationalist competition. The unification of Germany upset the balance of power in Europe. In this climate of tension, governments looked towards enforcing national strength. The  newly formed nations of Italy and Germany now sought empires outside Europe as a means of gaining power and prestige within Europe. In the nineteenth century, a German historian Henrich con Treitschke stated â€Å"All great nations in the fullness of their strength have desired to set their mark on barbarian lands and those who fail to participate in this great rivalry will pay a pitiable role in time to come.† Under the leadership of Bismarck, Germany soon embarked on a quest of expansionism. Bismarck’s distrust of England under Gladstone was one of the reasons he decided to do this. Germany became engaged in an arms race with Great Britain and it desired as many military and naval bases as it could obtain. France needed to restore its damaged national pride after its defeat by Germany in the Franco-Prussian war and therefore embarked upon expansionism. Their aim was to have an uninterrupted link between the Niger River and the Nile, thus controlling all trade to and from the Sahel region, by virtue of their existing control over the Caravan routes through the Sahara. Domestic political interests also contributed to European Imperialism in Africa. As stated by Brain Levack, in the age of mass politics, political leaders needed to find issues that would both appeal to new voters and strengthen the status quo. Imperialism led the ordinary European people to believe that they were part of a superior, conquering people. Bismarck used imperial issues to help him find political allies in Germany and once remarked â€Å"all this colonial business is a sham but we need it for the elections.† According to Lawrence James, in the 1890s witnessed a rapid expansion of newspaper readership with the appearance of a new type of daily designed to attract the working and lower middle class. Social Darwinism and missionary intentions are two excuses that are used to justify European imperialism in Africa. Rudyard Kipling characterized the Africans as â€Å"sullen, new caught peoples, half devil and half child.† The Europeans believed it to be their duty to civilize the wild savage Africans. Liberalism, which may be defined as a dedication to self-improvement and the belief that there were discoverable rules of general conduct that everyone could follow, contributed to the paternal manner in which Europe acted and arguments of racial and cultural superiority that pushed Europeans into  Africa to ‘civilize’ the local populations. Lawrence James states that nations who had now reached the highest stage of civilization were taking control over those which had lagged behind, or races, like the Asante, who were not seen as fit to control their own affairs. In an issue of the Dublin Review in the late nineteenth century it was stated that â€Å"The future of Africa under any form of European tutelage must be better than the dark and evil nightmare of the past†. These Social Darwinists were able to persuade the natives that what was being done was to their ultimate benefit. According to Derrick Murphy et al, there existed the idea that imperialism was a moral duty as a means of spreading Western civilization and Christian values. Many Europeans bought this excuse while others did not. Africans were forced to adopt the Christian religion. In some cases they were killed for continuing to practice their own faiths. Some historians believe that the whole motive for Christian evangelism in Africa was simply to disrupt and destroy and that it was always politically motivated. First, missionaries were brought to the continent. Secondly, after some natives were converted and there was a considerable amount of confusion among them, the troops were sent to exploit them. Their main intention was to divide to control. According to an African chieftain â€Å"The white man is very clever. He came quietly and peaceably with his religion. We were amused at his foolishness and allowed him to stay. Now he has won our brothers and our clan can no longer act like one. He has put a knife on the things that held us together and we have fallen apart.†Various factors attracted European imperialism to Africa in the later nineteenth century. Europe was changing and their colonial empires were associated with the ideas of national greatness and the survival of the fittest. This caused a massive drive for empires. There was a yearning for raw materials, national power and prestige. Each nation which possessed a colonial territory also possessed a sense of superiority. Bibliography 1.) Chambers Mortimer, Hanawalt Barbara, Rabb Theodore, Woloch Isser, Grew Raymond, The Western Experience, 1999, The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., United States of America2.) James Lawrence, ‘The White Man’s Burden’? Imperial Wars in the 1890s’ Spielvogel Jackson, Western Civilization, Mc Graw Hill, Connecticut, 1999(pgs 100-105)3.) Levack Brian, Muir Edward, Maas Michael, Veldman Meredith, The West, Encounters and Transformations, 2004, Pearson Education Inc., United States of America4.) Miller Stuart, Mastering Modern European History, 1997, Palgrave, United Kingdom, Hampshire5.) Murphy Derrick, Morris Terry, Europe 1870-1991, 2000, Harper Collins Publishers LTD, United Kingdom, England6.) ‘The Church as a Tool of Imperialism’

A Study on Impact of Fdi on Service Sector Essay

The study aims to analyze the growth dynamics of the FDI. It intends to see whether the growth in FDI has any significant impact on the service sector growth and also investigates whether a growth in this sector causes the GDP to grow, also analyzes the significance of the FDI Inflows in Indian service sector. The study also looks into the sub-sectoral dynamics and indicates towards the fact that the trade, hotels and restaurants, transport. storage and communications sub-sector contributes the most in the growth of Indian service sector. FDI to developing countries in the 1990s was the leading source of external financing. It is one of the most important component of national development strategies for most of the countries in the world and an important source of non-debt inflows for attaining competitive efficiency by creating a meaningful network of global interconnections. FDI provide opportunities to host countries to enhance their economic development and opens new opportunities to home countries to optimize their earnings by employing their ideal resources. India ranks fifteenth in the services output and it provides employment to around 23% of the total workforce in the country. The various sectors under the Services Sector in India are construction, trade, hotels, transport, restaurant, communication and storage, social and personal services, community, insurance, financing, business services, and real estate. Meaning: FDI stands for Foreign Direct Investment, a component of a country’s national financial accounts. Foreign direct investment is investment of foreign assets into domestic structures, equipment, and organizations. It does not include foreign investment into the stock markets. Foreign direct investment is thought to be more useful to a country than investments in the equity of its companies because equity investments are potentially â€Å"hot money† which can leave at the first sign of trouble, whereas FDI is durable and generally useful whether things go well or badly. Classifications of Foreign Direct Investment FDI is classified depending on the direction of flow of money. * Outward FDI:Any investment made by a country in other countries will account for outward FDI. Where as, all the FDIs invested by other countries in that country is called inward FDI. Outward FDI, also referred to as â€Å"direct investment abroad†, is backed by the government against all associated risk. * Inward FDI : Inward FDI occurs when foreign capital is invested in local resources. The factors propelling the growth of inward FDI include tax breaks, low interest rates and grants. FDI is classified depending on how the subsidiary company works in par with the parent investors. * Vertical: Vertical FDIs happen when a corporation owns some share of the foreign enterprise. The local enterprise could either be supplying the input or selling finished goods to the parent corporation. The subsidiary here helps the parent company to grow more. * Horizontal: When the MNCs kick off similar business operations in different countries it becomes horizontal Foreign Direct Investment. It is actually a cloning that is happening here. Both the countries enjoy the same share of growth. FDI IN INDIA After getting independence in 1947, the government of India envisioned a socialist approach based on the USSR system to developing the country’s economy. The last decade of the 20th century witnessed a drastic increase in foreign direct investment (FDI), accompanied by a marked change in the attitude of most developing countries towards inward investment. FDI flows have grown in importance relative to other forms of international capital flows, and the resulting production has increased as a share of world output.. FDI in India has in a lot of ways enabled India to achieve a certain degree of financial stability, growth and development during recession. This money has allowed India to focus on the areas that may have needed economic attention and address various problems that continue to challenge the country. The factors that attracted investment in India are stable economic policies, availability of cheap and quality human resources, and opportunities of new unexplored markets. Mostly FDI are flowing in service sector and manufacturing sector recorded very low investments. The investments in service sector enhanced the benefit of flow of funds to the home country. Presently India is contributing about 17% of world total population but the share of GDP to world GDP is 2%. India has been ranked at the second place in global foreign direct investments in 2010 and will continue to remain among the top five attractive destinations for international investors during 2010-12 period, according to United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) in a report on world investment prospects titled, ‘World Investment Prospects Survey 2009-2012’. According to the fact sheet on foreign direct investment dated October 2010. Mauritius is the highest FDI investment in equity inflows with 42% of the total inflow followed by Singapore, USA, UK and Netherlands with 9%, 7%, 5% and 4% respectively. Service sector is the highest FDI attracting inflows with 21% of the total inflows, followed by computer software and hardware, telecommunication and housing and real estate with 9%, 8%, 7% and 7% inflows respectively. A report released in February 2010 by Leeds University Business School, commissioned by UK Trade ;amp; Investment (UKTI), ranks India among the top three countries where British companies can do better business during 2012-14. According to Ernst and Young’s 2010 European Attractiveness Survey, India is ranked as the fourth most attractive foreign direct investment destination in 2010.

Facebook Porter’s Five

Porter’s five forces analysis has become a pervasively adopted framework for industry analysis, which can be used to examine the competitive intensity and attractiveness of a market or a company. The social networking companies gradually come into the spotlight of the business world in recent years, which was especially featured by the significant event of Facebook’s IPO on May 18, 2012. In such circumstances, it will be extremely interesting to apply the five forces analysis to gauge this giant and even unfold some hints that why this star company has been struggling in the stock market since it went public.Although it has been a tough time period for Mark Zuckerberg, the more transparency and disclosure of the company’s financial as well as operational information available for the capital market provide us much more useful resources to put Facebook under our microscope of five forces analysis. The Bargaining Power of Customers (Strong) With regard to customer aspect, it might be taken for granted that we are referring to billions of active users on this website.But when we look further into this company and its product, the surprising truth is that the users and their personal information are actually the product rather than the customer, at least from the financial standpoint. Advertising composes 84% of the company’s total revenue, which was $1. 18 billion for the second quarter of 2012 according to its official financial reports. Then we found out that the advertisers are Facebook’s real customers, and what confronts this company is a fiercely competitive market.Although Facebook declared that 70% of its advertising campaigns resulted in a return on ad spend of 3x or better, and 49% of campaigns showed 5x or better, Facebook adverting is still generally undervalued by the marketers given the factor of being the last ad viewed or clicked before a conversion outweighs all other criteria, and Facebook advertising usually co mes into play earlier in the conversion funnel. In addition to the low cost to switch to other advertising media, there’s no wonder that the advertisers have gained relatively strong, if not dominant, bargain power with continuously debating the value of Facebook advertising.The Bargaining Power of Suppliers(Medium) Compared to the customers’ bargain power, Facebook is standing at a regnant position with thousands of common-sense suppliers playing in its arena. It may be noticed that I use common-sense to categorize such kinds of suppliers providing hardware, software, and services Facebook need to run their business, like Zynga. On the other side, it might be interesting to scrutinize another set of suppliers in terms of Facebook’s product, that is, the users of the website.Yes, those are the users who establish their social network and feed in their personal information, which make up of Facebook’s product and determine its success. In accordance with F acebook’s operational highlights of second quarter 2012, monthly active users on its website have notched 955 million as of June 30, 2012, which was an increase of 29% year-over-year. But taking the whole social networking market and even the internet into consideration, it will be difficult for Facebook to maintain such steady increase of its user base.Actually, the increase pace has gradually slowed down in recent quarters, observed by multiple sources. Additionally, the users with more education and experience have been reluctant to share excessive personal information on the website to protect privacy and prevent from possible solicitation. After all, Facebook still serves as the mostly visited social networking website and is therefore in demand of diversified supplies, so we could regard the bargaining power of suppliers as medium level. The Threat of Established Rivals(Strong)As discussed, the social networking companies are facing a fully competitive market. Besides F acebook, there are several other main players, including LinkedIn, Google, Yammer, Myspace, etc, as well as hundreds of small websites focusing on specific segment or providing general social networking services. For example, LinkedIn has built up a professional network into a can’t-miss destination with millions of member professional. The year-over-year revenue growth for LinkedIn was very remarkable at over 80% for the last two years, and it has continued to see strong revenue growth beating analyst estimates.LinkedIn has shown an even more robust business model compared with Facebook. Rather than solely relaying on advertising income, LinkedIn also has considerable revenue from job postings and subscriptions, which help the company to grow its revenue at a notable rate and avoid stagnancy. In this sense, Facebook may have more struggles to improve its user experience and spur revenue growth especially compared with its competitors, and the threat of established rivals is absolutely strong. The Threat of New Entrants(Strong)For new entrants to social networking market, the technical barriers are barely insignificant and Facebook’s most advantage might be its current huge user base. But such advantage is also easy to be mimicked by other Internet giants who already have stable visitor stickiness like Google. Google launched its social networking and identity service, Google+, in June 2011. As of September 2012, it already has a total of 400 million registered users of whom 100 million are active on a monthly basis.Instead of presenting as a social player consisting of not just a single site, Google has been able to provide an overarching layer integrating many of its current online properties. Illustrated by Google’s story, the threat of new entrants to social networking market for Facebook is quite strong and even thrilling if we recall the ever-changing world of internet business. The Threat of Substitute Products(Weak) Finally, the th reat of substitute products to social network website including Facebook is not obvious yet.Facebook’s current user base still shows a strong stickiness and its continuous innovation also help it satisfy the user’s social networking needs well. But considering Facebook is essentially a social network that allows users to stay in touch with their friends, there are so many products or services could potentially address it. Especially if we observed the booming market of mobile networks, services like Buzzd, Twango and Dada may grow up to be a real threat in the near future. Overall, the threat of substitute products is medium based on the analysis above.

Data analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Data analysis - Essay Example The data gathering process is conducted through online questionnaires or surveys in order to determine the information, which is gathered and then analyzed. The Strategic Communication is first important in communicating to authors what was uncovered in the research. Secondly, when the book is ready to be sold, the Strategic Communication, through advertising and public relations (PR), reflects the changes made in this new edition to all those who potentially will adopt or purchase this book for their courses (Churchill and Iacobucci 566). As another example of Strategic Communications, a Vice-President in a business may need to inform the board of directors about a new process that can be implemented, but with some additional costs. The research done as to the plan’s effectiveness and what it will cost, is essential to selling this new process to the board of directors. Therefore, the statistics which shows this information, is an essential part to successfully selling the ne w plan or operation. 2. Differentiate between a population and sample. The difference is that a population consists, for example, of all people who drink coffee at Starbucks (Zikmund 296). The sample of the population must be taken from within that population of all people who drink coffee from Starbucks (Week 4, p.2). ... This is part of variables when we determine these parameters of the data while canvasing those people who have applied to take the survey Week 4, p.4). If any of the required parameters (variables) are not present, such as a certain age group, buying Starbucks coffee more than once a month, who are currently working, and own a home, for example, then those returns are not vetted or accepted. In general, use 10% of the overall group to get a representation, such as 100/1000 (Muijs 35). In describing a sample of School of Communication students, they would need to be taking classes in public relations, journalism, marketing, and radio/television courses (Zikmund 296). Age is not considered a factor but it can be a descriptive of the sampling, as older students also take these courses, not just those who are 18 to 22 years of age. In defining parameters for attaining the sample, the objective for this might be that only those who are majoring in any of these courses, and within a certai n age group, can apply to the research study. Other parameters that could be applied in some cases, is to only have honor students apply, rather than the whole population of students in the School of Communications. Creating such parameters in the invitation communication means that only those who closely fit the parameters, will apply, rather than the whole school or college, thus saving on wasted time weeding out those who do not fit in to the objective (Muijs 35; week 4, p.6). 3. Explain what statistical significance is. Statistical significance is the process of testing data through various operations. One example might be in creating two different messages, with a call to action, which will be sent to a sample group. This would be called A/B testing to see which

China Investments. What makes china an attractive location for inward Essay

China Investments. What makes china an attractive location for inward direct investment by multinational enterprises - Essay Example 2007, p. 400). With this in mind, this has provided capital for the companies to expand even further as there is a steady flow of funds, and the only direction of the company is forward. This is evidenced by the lack of good performance by Chinese companies that are enlisted in the local stock market, whereas those that go to foreign markets have a better performance (Liao 1998). This is to mean that the availability of capital to invest in China is part of its main reasons that it is attractive to foreign investors as their investments can be guaranteed to have returns. In addition, there is plenty of capital in China, but without vehicles to see that the capital is used in constructive projects, there are increased investments as the capital resources are more than the investments available. This is to mean that the country is strategically placed to receive direct investment by multinational firms that want to benefit from the funds available, as well as the resources found there. With little investments going on, there are plenty of opportunities and funds that are unexplored, creating the need for foreign investors to come in and create partnerships with the existing firms and capital holders in order to drive the economy forward, as well as have the funds released as part of a joint venture. Competitiveness Competition in China is a major contributor of the attractiveness of the Chinese business appeal in that the industries and businesses found in China thrive based on tight competition. This is so because of the dynamics of technological innovations that keep investors and businesses on their toes. As such, each investment needs to keep growing lest it is phased out due to being conservative and sticking to conventional means of handling business. The attractive aspect, therefore, lies in the competition, where different firms working in the same sector compete against each other to stay afloat, which are a healthy form of competition to keep the econom y of the country running (Tung-lung & Weichun 2011, p. 153). In addition, the contribution of competition in the business environment of China for investors is brought about by foreign direct investment. This is done through new investment that uses the above strategic information to ensure that the available capital is put to good use. As such, new businesses compete against older ones as the new ones have an edge owing to technological innovations, while the older ones have an edge based on their experience. This is the perfect environment for any business that wants to grow from scratch and make a name for itself as they all need to evolve and adapt to new requirements and technologies, which makes China a dynamic economy and which is an attractive feature for multinationals seeking to establish new investments. Apart from this, there are numerous malpractices in China that act as a magnet for foreign investors and multinationals to set up their businesses. This is because there are illegal practices in China that are only practiced in that country and not anywhere else, which makes the country more competitive than the rest in the global economy. The country has an intricate web of illegal subsidies that range from land, capital and utilities to tax breaks that other countries cannot compete with. This makes the country very appealing in terms of its practices that see investors flock into the country. Competition goes again as far as innovative measures to overcome foreign competition, where there are incentives such as those that see the American market receive more goods from China than those that go into China from the United States. This is an attempt to see to it that competitors in America

Cartridge world Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Cartridge world - Case Study Example Take for instance the Cartridge world has reduced the cost of printer cartridges allowing its customers to enjoy using their products without losing quality. The company has for this reason exceeded the expectations of its customers, and its competitors cannot duplicate such service (Arthur, Margaret and John 2011, 56). Focusing on becoming an overall low-cost leader has created a competitive advantage for cartridge world. They have differentiated their products and services from competition; they provide warranty so as not to invalidate their products to their customers. They also provide free collection and delivery; thus, cutting the cost for their customers (Jayne and William 2006, 45). The company has also focused on having distinct appeal to an individual or groups of customers, or maybe industrial buyers, concentrating on their differentiation concerns or cost. The company was able to recognize a need that existed in the market and was able to fulfill it. When its customers demanded change in the price of the ink cartridges, cartridge world introduced a new printer that was able to offer a cheap ink cartridge. It then introduced the product for sale at a competitive price (Porter 1998, 40). Fulfilling an existing need in the market was for that reason more effective than an attempt to identify e new need in the market and then making the customers aware of the need (Pearce and Robinson 2004,

Code of Ethics paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Code of Ethics paper - Essay Example To conduct his duty, network administrator has given an authority to access the data, accounts or files of other users so they fix them when problem occurs and also keep an eye on unethical activities. Network administrator has to follow certain principles and rules that are intended to serve as a guideline for his work based on the principles of right or wrong. Privileged access to other user’s accounts, files and data has been given to network administrator to carry out specific job duties that come up with a lot of responsibility. Privileged access is used to perform only system related duties, that may include installing a system software, relocating the files of the users in case of overloading, to return a system to its normal functioning for fixing files and processes or to check programs running for security purposes. Privileged account administrators shall take necessary precautions to keep the information of users confidential while performing their duties and shall not try to misuse the personal information of the users. Network administrator can access the personal or professional information of a user connected to his network. He can cause damage to his personal life, get access to his bank accounts, abuse the sick time and so forth. At one hand, access to someone’s data is a high security risk while on other it is extremely immoral. The easiest way to consider a code moral or immoral is to implement the code against oneself. In the given scenario, a network administrator would never like to misuse his personal data by someone else. For professional matters, it is against prestige, income, and especially autonomy of the profession to misuse other’s information. On the other hand, if the data is misused it decreases the company’s value in their customer’s eye and business world which makes it a corporate code. Lastly, as far as government bodies are concerned, they have criminal laws against a person found to abuse

Ulrich Zwingli - A Religious Reformer Research Paper

Ulrich Zwingli - A Religious Reformer - Research Paper Example Nor was it by the ancient Church of the Swiss, until convents turned missionaries into monks, and monks turned the gospel into fables, and these fables led the people to believe that the pope was the Vicar of Christ, and that Mary should be adored as the Virgin and as the guardian of the Church (REV. WM. M. BLACKBURN 1868, 12-20) It is by this lie, that Ulrich Zwingli stretched his dowel in the direction of reformation of the church. The flagrant corruption, and â€Å"the lie of celibacy† were a constant thorn in the belief that Ulrich held in his conviction to the true cause of Christ; But not without the controversy of expulsion and severing of the ties with Rome. In this period, and in the periods that had passed, there had been Turmoil in the church, of the celebrations and the Book of Christ. Many reformers of the time questioned the role of these celebrations and the controversy of them not being found in the Bible. The statement he makes in his works clearly indicates his feelings towards the papal conclave;That Christ is the only eternal high priest, wherefrom it follows that those who have called themselves high priests have opposed the honor and power of Christ, yea, cast it out. (Meyer 1912, 2007 , 2007) By no means did he shy away from controversy, but in his belief in ‘truth’ and his understanding of humanity, did he engage in writings of change, and politics, and distributed them commonly even in Rome, where his works were proscribed, the prelates still treasured his books, devoid of true acquaintance that he indeed authored those works they so loved. 1.1 WHO WAS HE? ‘God has granted me,’ said he, ‘f rom my boyhood to devote myself to the acquirement of knowledge, both human and divine. ... I acknowledge myself to be a great sinner before God, though I have not lived an immoral life, and on no occasion has discipline been exercised upon me.’ (REV. WM. M. BLACKBURN 1868) Born in the Year 1484, in January at Wildhaus, Switzerland, Ulrich was named after his ‘Ammann’1 Father, Ulrich the senior. His Uncle Bartholomew Zwingli also the Dean of Wesen, came and baptized him. Ulrich was born in a family of eight sons and one daughter. Ulrich was the third. As a young boy, living in the mountains, and had the chance to feel the presence of God in his surroundings. He would watch the animals and the people, and listen to tales from his grandmother, until at nine, from a suggestion by his Uncles, his father took him to Wesen, and laid him in the hands of his Uncle Bartholomew with the words; â€Å"You have put lofty ideas into Ulrich s head, and now I have brought him, so that you may try What he can do† (REV. WM. M. BLACKBURN 1868) In the spirit of the school of the times in Wesen, Bartholomew Zwingli, seeing that the education at the common schools was not good enough, contacted his friend the master of St. Theodore George Binzli, at Basle. Here, Ulrich grew faster in knowledge that he made new enemies in the older boys, at the age of thirteen, he was sent to Berne, where later after there was a trial by the monks of Dominica to convert the young bright mind, he was sent to Vienna In Austria, where he met two new friends that would help him grow in leaps and bounds. In such dedication, Ulrich Grew a devoted catholic, raised in the values and commissions of the church, and it can be said that he never really faced the world of corruption and sin in such a way that salvation would to him make a big impact than another reformer, born only a few weeks earlier, Mr. Martin Luther of the Lutheran reformation. There is no saying, that in his †Å"safety† at Basel, Bern and Vienna, from where upon receiving his qualification in Arts, he joined the service of the Roman Catholic Church, Ulrich was far protected from facing the temptations of this world in so much that his tilt towards the ‘females’ was strong enough when he faced the sleaze. This was one of the conflict points that Ulrich had with the

A South African Investment Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

A South African Investment Paper - Essay Example The value of Caltex tripled in the subsequent eight years. During its operations in South Africa, it faced three major resolutions by a section of its stockholders, to whom the issue concerned were rights and justice for non-white community in South Africa. The resolution ranged from closing operations in South Africa to making positive contribution to the economic and social uplifting of the Apartheid affected society in the country through four Tutu’s principles. Although, the resolutions were never passed but presented Caltex and other foreign multinational companies with challenges of adhering to the South African laws, provide returns to the stockholders and contribute to the society. This essay discusses the challenges faced by the non-white community and the multinational companies in South Africa, if a better decision could have been made by Texaco and SoCal with respect to the Apartheid affected society. II. Benefits or Violation of Moral Rights and Justice When Texac o and SoCal entered the South African market through a joint venture Caltex, being for-profit organizations, their motive in South Africa was profit-making. However, the question arises whether the utilitarian benefits of operations in South Africa should have been derived at the cost of violation of moral justice and rights of society. There are certain principles which guide the ethical decision making. The long-term self-interest principle prohibits action which may not be in the long-term interest of the organization. The principle of utilitarian benefits asserts that an action should never be taken, if it does not transform into greater good for society. The principle of government obligations states that an action should not be taken if it violates the applicable law. The law here represents moral standards of society (Williams, 2006, pp.110-111). These principles, as can be seen, contradict in the situation of South Africa. Caltex, as a steward of society, is responsible for the greater good of its stakeholders i.e. shareholders, employees, suppliers, customers and society as a whole. The appropriate action, which Caltex could have taken, is to refrain from building the plant until the South African Government has made amendments in its policies towards the non-white community which formed a major section of the company’s workforce. The reason is, even if the company remains operational in the conflicting situation, the profits will eventually diminish as they cannot sustain in the long run. III. Response to the Resolutions The first resolution in 1977 demanded Texaco and SoCal to terminate their operations as quickly as possible until and unless the South African Government ends its apartheid policies and takes steps towards full legal, political and social rights for the majority population. The vote of a stockholder ought to have been in favor of this resolution, because the government policies are likely to affect the profitability of the com panies in the long run from their operations in the country. The increasing unrest, if prudently analyzed, will affect the profitability of Caltex. The second resolution in 1983 demanded Caltex to stop selling petroleum products to the military or police of South Africa. As a stockholder, the vote should have been in favor of the resolution even if it demands an outright violation of National Supplies Procurement Act, recently enacted and Price Control Act, 1964. The

Bacteria and Living Organism Parasites Essay Example for Free

Bacteria and Living Organism Parasites Essay Describe what is meant by infection and colonisation. Infection – is an invasion to body tissues from a disease- caused microorganism. Colonisation – is multiplication of microorganisms without tissue invasion or damage. Explain what is meant by â€Å"systemic infection and localized infection† Systemic – is when infection is distributed throughout the whole body. Localized – is when infection is limited to a specific part of the body. 2. 5 Identify poor practises that may lead to the spread of infection. If you don’t wash your hands, not wearing personal protective clothing, not clearing surroundings, not covering your mouth and nose when you sneeze or cough. Understand the transmission of infection. Explain the conditions needed for the growth of microorganisms. Microorganisms need something to feed on such as dairy products, raw eggs and uncooked fish. Moisture- the microorganisms will not grow in dry conditions. Warmth/ temperature – there are two types that grow in low temperatures and some that grow in high temperatures. Psychorphiles will grow in less than 20c and thermophiles which will grow above 45c. Time – with the right food, moisture and temperature the microorganisms will divide in to two every 20minutes. . 7 Explain the ways an infective agent might enter the body. Main ways are through the mouth, lungs, cuts , touch and other external organs such as eyes also they can enter through genitals and mixing body fluids.   Identify common source of infection. Infections can be spread and caught though having contact with another person who has the infection or even some infections can be air bourn Explain how infec tive agents can be transmitted to a person. Transmitting infections can be done in different ways such as coughing and sneezing on someone, touching an infected person including sexual contact, touching contaminated surfaces, contaminated food, or if microorganisms can remain in the air for long periods of time. 3. 10 Identify the key factors that will make it more likely that infection will occur. It is most likely to occur when a person has a low immune system, is on long term antibiotics or has bad hygiene when treating a wound.

A Case Study Of The Code Switching Patterns English Language Essay

A Case Study Of The Code Switching Patterns English Language Essay The study investigates the use of Lithuanian and English and code-switching between the two in a family of Lithuanian-English bilinguals living in London. The data was collected by means of recording in the family home. The recording was then transcribed and analysed, allowing me to identify a number of features of the features of the language choice and code-switching patterns. These included convergence or divergence from the viewpoint of the previous speaker, lexical need, translation to allow for greater fluency in the conversation, trigger words and the perceived identity of the speaker. I conclude from these observations that code-switching can be seen as a versatile and fluid phenomenon which allows the speaker greater freedom of expression and performs a number of functions, both social and pragmatic. The speakers use their languages to This dissertation looks at bilingual conversations between family members in a family environment. The main focus of the work is the strategic use of code-switching. My particular interest is on how different members of the family use code-switching in order to express their national and individual identity and how this usage reflects their attitudes towards their languages. Theoretical background to the study: Bilingualism A fact frequently mentioned in bilingual studies is that over half the world is bilingual (Hoffmann 1991). However, patterns of individual language use within bilingual communities are diverse and it has been claimed that bilingualism is more common in unilingual countries (Mackey 1970). Lithuania has a high level of bilingualism with over 70% of the residents being multilingual (http://www.stat.gov.lt/en/). Language use is influenced by social circumstances, especially with regard to the communicative situation in which the language is employed. Bilingualism, however, is not automatically sustained without regular exchanges in the pertinent languages. (Ervin-Tripp and Reyes 2005). Languages amongst second generation immigrants seem to be maintained in strong correlation to the amount of exposure within the home. Mackey Bilingualism Reader page 35. The level of language proficiency and performance are affected by the intention of the speaker and the kinds of actions taken in order to satisfy that function. The attitude of a speaker towards his or her language is a major factor in their language behaviour. A speaker who feels ashamed of his or her level of a particular language may use this less frequently or only use it in certain company. Certain languages carry political associations and can be unpopular for this reason -for example, Russian was unpopular in many countries in the Soviet Union. Bilingual immigrant children may associate their second language with that of their friends and social life and have a more positive outlook towards this (Lambert et al 1958 see Bilingualism a reader for ref). Code-switching Code-switching is remarkably common in language contact situations, especially within plurilingual societies. The majority of code-switching studies have concentrated on the social motivation behind the switches (e.g. Myers-Scotton 1993) in addition to grammatical or syntactical constraints or psychological mechanism (e.g. Grosjean 2001). Alternation between languages seems to depend on a number of factors., including the conversational topic of the speaker, the person to whom he or she is speaking and the level of tension which he or she feels when taking part in the conversation for example when very tired, nervous, or angry. Myers Scotton (1993) amongst others has pointed out that bilinguals use code-switching in order to make the greatest use of their linguistic repertoire. For many bilinguals this is a part of their daily life. In multilingual societies this would take place in a variety of contexts, but in the UK this is most commonly found at home in a family environment. For this reason the study focuses on a family conversation. Age is a major factor for consideration in the study of language use within a family. For younger immigrants bilingualism can be a short process which can lead to the second language overtaking the first if home is the only environment in which the first language is utilised. (Tits 1959 see bilingualism reader for ref). The study of younger immigrants is specialised as their stability in their first language needs to be considered whereas with older immigrants their first language is far more fixed and stable. 1.1.2 Lithuania and the Lithuanian language According to the Office for National Statistics (www.statistics.gov.uk), an estimated 74,000 Lithuanians lived in the UK in 2010. Lithuania became independent from the Soviet Union in 1990 and became a member of NATO and the European Union in spring 2004. Since Lithuanian independence many changes have taken place and popular culture is highly influenced by Western Europe and the USA. An important change regarding language is that many young people are now able to speak English or another foreign language, and have little knowledge of the Russian language. In Soviet times the very large majority of the population was fluent in Russian. More than 70% of Lithuanians living in Lithuania in September 2012 are bi- or multilingual. (http://www.stat.gov.lt/en/) Russian is still the most widely spoken second language with English now the second. (Statistics Lithuania 2008). The total worldwide Lithuanian-speaking population is estimated at about 3,100,000 (2011, http://www.indexmundi.com/lithuania/demographics_profile.html), about 2.9 million native Lithuanian speakers in Lithuania and about 200,000 abroad (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_language). The Lithuanian language is a Baltic language which has been influenced by both Russian and Finnish, but retains many pure features of archaic Indo-European. The Russian language was particularly influential during the period of Soviet rule. Lithuanian is an inflectional language with seven cases and is gendered. The Lithuanian alphabet consists of 32 letters in the Latin alphabet using diacritical marks. There are two main dialects which differ significantly from each other: AukÃ…Â ¡taiÄ iÃ…Â ³ (AukÃ…Â ¡taitian, Highland Lithuanian) and Ã…Â ½emaiÄ iÃ…Â ³/Ã…Â ½emaitiu (Samogitian, Lowland Lithuanian). The family studied here speak standard or Highland Lithuanian. 1.1.3 Key terms Bilingualism Definitions of bilingualism vary greatly. Bloomfield (1933) describes it as: native-like control of two languages. However, this focus on the level of proficiency in each language does not refer to the use or function performed by the language. Definitions which are based on function take into account the fact that language is a communicative tool rather than an abstract entity. Weinreich (1953) describes bilingualism as: The practice of alternately using two languages. Els Oksaar (1983) takes function and proficiency into account in her definition of the ability of a person to use here and now two or more languages as a means of communication in most situations and to switch from one language to the other if necessary (p. 19). Hoffmann (1991) points out that bilingualism is relative, and although there have been many attempts to define it, none of these is equally valid. She suggests that a useful approach could be to form a bilingual profile for each individual, accounting for vari ables such as the language development and maintenance of the languages, their sequential relationship, the competence in each, functional aspects, linguistic features, attitudes and environmental circumstances. The term balanced bilingual is used to describe a speaker who has equal command of both languages. However, Fishman et al (1971) point out that this situation is rare. Bilinguals who are equally fluent in both languages (as measured by their facility and correctness overall) are rarely equally fluent in both languages about all possible topics; this phenomenon is invariably a reflection of the fact that societal allocation of functions is normally imbalanced and in complementary distribution rather than redundant (Fishman et al, 1971, in MacSwan, 1999: 30) . Code-switching Definitions of code-switching vary significantly between researchers. Code is generally used as a synonym of language, although there is some debate on this point, Jakobson distinguishing between the two terms, asserting that languages do not consist of codes, but rather contain them (Jakobson 1971). Some see code-switching as being the insertion of whole utterances in a non-dominant language between sentences (Dahl, Rice et al. 2010). Borrowing generally refers to the insertion of a word or phrase within a sentence while retaining the syntax of the matrix language. Code-mixing However, there is little evidence at present that there is a significant difference between these types, and many see the difference as best expressed in terms of a continuum (Clyne 2000). Jeanine Treffers-Daller (1994- linguistic c-s) points out that many researchers see a difference between instances of code-switching and transfer or interference both of these terms referring to the influence of one languag e on another. However, she argues that these can be seen as similar as they involve the occurrence of aspects of one language in a section of another language. In the current work, the term code-switching will be used in its broadest sense to refer to the use of two or more languages used within a conversation or utterance, whether this be inter- or intra-sententially, unless a particular term is used by another researcher cited here. Throughout this work I will refer to inter-sentential and intra-sentential code-switching switches which occur between sentences or within them respectively as originally defined by Polack (1980). Crossing (also language crossing or code-crossing) refers to the use of a language or variety which isnt generally thought to belong to the speaker (Rampton, 1997, in Auer 1998P. Auer (ed) 1997/98 Code-switching in Conversation: Language, Interaction and Identity (London: Routledge) Creolization is used here to mean the formation of a Creole language from the contact of a European language with a local language: http://oxforddictionaries.com Native speaker when used in this project refers to a person who has spoken the language in question from earliest childhood (http://oxforddictionaries.com). Rationale This is an ethnographic study using data obtained from naturally occurring speech of three bilinguals of differing levels of proficiency. The family were chosen as they are all first generation immigrants, bi- or tri-lingual and are integrated into British society while still retaining a sense of their Lithuanian identity through their visits to Lithuania and contact with Lithuanian friends and family. The mother, when collecting her son from school when he was about 5 years old, overheard him asking a friend: Did you know that I am half-Lithuanian? She then questioned him about why he thought he was only half Lithuanian when both his parents were Lithuanian. He answered that he was Lithuanian when he was at home because of his parents, but at school he was English because he spoke English there, and he knew he wasnt 100% Lithuanian, as he could not speak the language fluently. This biculturalism opens debate concerning the choice and use of language to broader issues such as identit y. Oksaar (1983) argues that an immigrants two languages usually perform distinct tasks and the distribution of the languages in relation to the cultural spheres may be a decisive factor for the immigrants degree of integration. This study aims to investigate how the level of proficiency in a language affects the code-switching patterns in this family and how the family members use their linguistic repertoire to express their identity as Lithuanian, English, or both. No attempt will be made in this work to examine grammatical restraints or features beyond a very basic level. Research Questions What are the language choices and code-switching patterns of the subjects in a family environment? Do the language choice and code-switching reflect on the proficiency level of the language used? What are the functional purposes of the code-switching? How are the individuals attitudes towards the two languages and their own identity reflected in their language behaviour? The first of these questions provides a general background on which the other questions are based. The second question relates the language choice and code-switching to the level of proficiency that the subjects have in the languages. Question 3 looks at the reasons behind the code-switching. Lastly, the final question examines if there is a relationship between the attitude of the individual and their language choices 1.4 Hypotheses That there is a correlation between the language choice and code-switching patterns of the speaker and their level of proficiency in that language. That the mother of the family, being the most balanced bilingual, will code-switch more frequently than the other two members of the family That the code-switching functions to facilitate understanding between all three members of the family and reflect their identities 1.5 Conclusion The structure of the paper is as follows: Chapter 1 has described the study and its aims. It has also given a brief summary of the key ideas which will be investigated and the terms which will be used throughout. The second chapter will review the literature which I feel is relevant and of interest to the present study. This will examine the perspectives on code-switching analysis, starting with the Rational Choice analysis. It will then examine Conversation Analysis as a tool for the analysis of code-switching data. Chapter 2 will also deal briefly with studies which look at the level of proficiency of the speakers and how this affects code-switching. The third chapter will describe the methodology used in the study including the research design issues and the positioning of the researcher. It will give an outline of the family background and history will then deal with the ethics, interviews and data collection which were carried out in order to conduct the research. A mention will also be made of the issues involved in data collection and the conventions used in the transcription as well as the methods used to analyse the data. Chapter 4 will look at the analysis of the data, dealing primarily with the research questions. It will examine the language choices of the subjects and how these choices reflect on the proficiency level of the participants in each language. It will then examine when the family code-switch when interacting and what the functional purposes of the code-switching appear to be. There will then be a discussion of how the language choices reflect the individuals attitudes towards the two languages. Chapter 5 concludes the study with a discussion of the implications of the findings and a summary of the research, looking at the limitations of the research and any further development required. Chapter 2 Review of relevant literature what about FAMILY studies and what is special about them? 2.1 Introduction QUOTATIONS ONE OR TWO PER PAGE In this chapter the literature concerned with the phenomenon of code-switching is examined to provide a conceptual framework. Studies have been carried out in this area from psycholinguistic, grammatical or sociolinguistic perspectives. This literature review will concentrate only on the sociolinguistic studies as these relate most closely to the research carried out. I will firstly consider the different perspectives on code-switching analysis Analyses based on the social connotations of the two languages and Conversation Analysis. I will then examine studies dealing with the level of proficiency of the speaker and how this affects code-switching practices. I will also briefly investigate studies of bilingual children before concluding by linking these studies to the study carried out here. The last forty or fifty years have seen a profusion of research carried out into reasons for code-switching and the different manifestations of the phenomenon. Studies in this area can be conducted for their own sake, in order to demonstrate characteristic features of a language. Code-switching is also studied in order to look at grammatical features or constraints across languages or for cognitive processing purposes. In addition code-switching can investigate the ways in which identities, be these individual or group, can be formed and demonstrated. It can also give additional meaning to an utterance which cannot be attributed to the meaning of the sum of individual words (Gardner-Chloros 2009) Code-switching is a conversational tool requiring competence pragmatically and grammatically (Koppe and Meisel 1995). Reasons why code-switching takes place are varied and complex. It is assumed to be related to the situational parameters of conversational topic, participant roles or the speech event itself (Auer 1995). However, intra-sentential code-switching may serve the purpose of emphasis, quoting another person, or to indicate a change in the participant addressed. It can also be used to indicate convergence or divergence from the previous participants statement (Zhu 2008). Inter-sentential code-switching can be used to fill gaps in lexical knowledge or to for emphasis (Zentella 1997) or to ask or answer rhetorical questions among other reasons. 2.2 Perspectives on code-switching analysis It is generally recognised that code-switching is meaningful from a social perspective. There are two broad schools of thought as to how this meaning is brought about. The first of these sees the choice of language as having a meaning, in terms of identity, views and values (Gumperz 1982, Myers-Scotton 1993). The other approach sees meaning as coming from the code-switching itself, that is, from within the conversation, rather than being reliant on external factors. This second approach concentrates on the sequences used and is generally studied using Conversational Analysis techniques. Increasingly researchers are favouring this second approach, as although it is widely acknowledged that social factors can play a significant role, this is not straightforward and cannot be assumed a priori (Cashman 2005, Williams 2005). 2.2.1 Analyses based on the social connotations of the two languages Language can be seen in terms of a we-code and they-code (Gumperz (1982). The we-code normally denotes a minority language linked to informal circumstances used by an in-group. The main community language, linked to formal circumstances, is a they-code. Typically in families in which the parents are immigrants to the UK, the parents will see their community language or mother tongue as the we-code and English as the they-code. Their children, however, brought up in the UK, are likely to feel that English is their we-code and to prefer to use this. Gumperz (1982) sees code-switching as meaningful from a social identity perspective. He carried out a study in Norway examining the use of Ranamal a local dialect, and Bokmal the standard language variety. These shared many similarities but were considered by speakers to be distinct. This distinction was important in order for the varieties to fulfil social functions. The local dialect was used with family, and to express local cultural identity, while the more standard variety was used in education and in the media. Many people switched between these two varieties depending on the topic of the conversation for example, an enquiry about family might be made in Ranamal, while Bokmal might be used while discussing business. Zhu Hua (2008) points out that a large body of evidence now indicates that there is no simple, one-to-one association between language and social values (p.1800) In an investigation into diasporic Chinese families in the UK, she examined the connection between social communication and socio-cultural values, focusing on code-switching between generations in conflict talk situations in which the speakers adopt different opinions on a subject. There appeared to be strategic language choices and positioning by the speakers. It appeared that code-switching functioned to focus the interactions between the speakers particularly when negotiating power relationships. Speakers showed convergence or divergence with the previous speakers view depending on their language choice speakers answering in the language in which they were addressed were is likely to be showing convergence. Investigations into non-Western code-switching have found evidence refuting the idea of different languages being associated with different groups. Stroud (1998) looked at the use of Tok Pisin, a national language, and Taiap, spoken by a tiny minority. It was found that no particular domain, subject or speech variety was spoken about in one language only. Rational choice analyses start from the basic standpoint of Gumperz (1982). The Markedness Model of Myers-Scotton (1993) makes the assumption that one language variety is always unmarked in any situation and that social norms act as constraints to speakers. She studied African urban communities and saw a distinction between the theories of allocation, where language behaviour is affected by the structure of society, and interaction, in which a person makes a rational selection to achieve a specific purpose. The mother tongue of the Kenyans studied was used with others of the same ethnic background and appeared to be important in terms of identity. It was also used for assistance from other members of the same group. English was used at home by those more affluent economically as it was assumed that this would help the children with their school education. The markedness idea is further developed in the Rational Choice Model (Myers-Scotton and Bolonyai 2001), which asserts that an unm arked choice is one in which the speaker chooses his or her language according to the conventions of the social norms. These norms can dictate that code-switching is in itself the choice which is unmarked. The Markedness Model appears to regard monolingualism as the starting point or norm and disregards variation between languages (Blommaert and Meeuwis 1998). The idea of strategic code-switching is also criticised as many see code-switching as an unconscious occurrence (Woolard 2004). This Rational Choice Model was employed by Alfaraz (2009) in a study of the use of Spanish and English in the Catholic mass. Quantitative analysis revealed a more frequent use of English than Spanish during the service, making English apparently the unmarked choice. On closer analysis, however, it could be seen that Spanish was used for the ritualistic areas of the service, making this the unmarked choice. Alfaraz asserted that pragmatic meaning was not conveyed though the directionality of switching in the data. Instead, code-switching seemed to be used to emphasise contextual information equivalent to what in monolingual settings is conveyed through prosody or other syntactic or lexical processes (Gumperz 1982 p.98). An example of this is in the use of pauses, which when between code-switched passages were found to be almost two seconds shorter than those between monolingual passages in the data, pointing towards the switching being used as a reinforcement of the effect of the paus e. The Rational Choice Model assumes that choices are made between codes according to external values. However, more recent thinking about how meanings can be interpreted has asserted that they can be interpreted from the conversation itself without the necessity of relating to external norms. Li Wei (1998) argues that code-switching can be used to show the authoritative level of the speaker and their preference linguistically. 2.2.3 Conversational analyses of code-switching see Nilep interactional section Macro-sociolinguistic aspects of code-switching, while giving a useful insight, can never determine absolutely code-switching. Gumperz (1982) maintained that in order to define the functions of code-switching a close and detailed analysis of conversation is necessary. On the basis of this he identified a list of six functions (quotation marking, addressee specification, interjection, reiteration, message qualification, and personalization versus objectivization. This list has led on to many other similar attempts to identify a list of code-switching functions (Romaine 1989; Nishimura 1997; Zentella 1997). These lists are problematic, however, as there are often problems with definition, as Auer (1995) points out. Although these may provide some useful guidelines, they are inadequate as a complete answer to the functions that code-switching carries out. .Auer (1984) claims that bilingual interaction is susceptible to local methods of language negotiation and code choice and is autonomous at one level from the larger ideological and societal structures to which it are related. Conversational analyses of code-switching focus on the actual interactions and the fulfilment of interactional goals which take place between the speakers rather than on external factors. Li Wei (2005) regards Conversation Analysis as an extension of Rational Choice analyses, but seeking evidence from talk-in-interaction rather than from external knowledge of community structure and relations (p.375). Myers-Scotton and Bolonyai (2001) have criticised this approach for the emphasis on transcriptions techniques and lack of focus on motivational choices. Li Wei (2002) claims that the conversational analysis approach is often used without explicit reference to the reasons why, but that it can demonstrate the motivation and intentions of the speaker in addition to r evealing the process of generating ordered activity . Code-switching is commonly believed to be related to other manifestations of bilingual or multilingual behaviour rather than an isolated occurrence. Translanguaging space covers a diversity of practices including code-switching, code-mixing, crossing and creolization. Li Wei (2010) studied the multilingual practices of three Chinese undergraduate maths students resident in Britain through Moment Analysis. This aims to capture seemingly spur-of-the-moment performances and to establish their causes and results. Speakers seemed to express their identities and create their own social spaces through utilization of the linguistic resources available to them. Translanguaging space can be a reflection of an individuals identity and demonstrates the way individuals use their linguistic resources to create their own space, rather than responding to external factors. Various patterns of interactions can be analysed in sequential code-switching Auer (1995). These can involve both the interlocutors speaking in different languages to each other, for example one person speaking consistently in English while the other replies in Lithuanian. However, this often leads to one interlocutor beginning to use the other language and becomes a monolingual conversation. When this pattern is seen it can indicate the preference of language by a speaker. It can also show the level of competence in a language (usually the speaker is more competent in his or her preferred language). It could indicate language choice for a social reason. Reyes (2004) states that code-switching can be used to extend communicative competence in situations where a single language is not adequate. Milroy and Wei (1995) claim that interlocutors decide on a language and that code-switching occurs within this. This code-switching becomes interactional in that participants often choose to speak in the language which best suits their interlocutor (Milroy and Li Wei, 1995). Their study found that Chinese immigrants to the UK varied in their language practices according to age, with the older generation preferring to use their Chinese mother tongue, and the younger generation showing a preference for English. Code-switching within this appeared to be used for repetition and emphasis, clarification and confirmation, as well as making language repairs (this last only amongst the adults). Critiques of Conversation Analysis claim that a focus too closely on conversation as the starting point for analysis in addition to not allowing macro-sociolinguistic evidence can result in unsatisfactory analysis of non-Western language behaviour. [L]anguage use and patterns of code-switching both structure and are structured by indigenous cultural practices (Stroud 1998 p.322). 2.3 Code-switching and level of proficiency Code-switching has traditionally been seen as the result of a lack of competence in one of the languages, or a practice which is lazy or inhibits language learning. Bullock and Toribio (2009) state that it is .à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ perceived by the general public as indicative of language degeneration (Bullock and Toribio 2009 p.1). However, studies have shown that these viewpoints do not reflect the truth (Hughes, Shaunessy et al. 2006). By focusing on code-switching as a resourceful process, it is possible to see the ways in which languages are used for communication and to advance learning (Liebscher and Dailey-OCain 2005). Weinreich (1953) described an idealised bilingual speaker who would use both codes distinctly. However, Grosjean (1997) has asserted that neither language system of a bilingual can be fully deactivated. This implies that bilinguals generally differ in some way from monolinguals, even in their principal language. Even the concept of the native speaker is now being cha llenged by code-switching practices (Gardner-Chloros 2009). The issue of the level of proficiency of the speaker and the effect of this on code-switching has long been under debate. McClure (1977) noted that the use of code-switching changes with age. Younger children were seen to code-switch nouns whereas older ones switched phrases and sentences, thus indicating that there is a level of proficiency which must be reached for code-switching to take place. However, according to Myers-Scotton (1993), there is no clear level of proficiency that a speaker must obtain in a second language in order for code-switching to take place. Code-switching has been seen as a strategy to cope with deficiencies in one or both of the languages (MacSwan 1999). These deficiencies were previously referred to as semilingualism (Cummins and Miramonte, 1989, in MacSwan, 1999) and were thought of as causing low academic achievement in multilingual children (Milroy and Muysken 1995, Tokuhama-Espinosa 2003). However, Li Wei (2000) points out that the term was used for ethnic minorities and not for the speakers of mainstream languages. Poplack (1980) was critical of the term for the implication that the speakers are not fully literate, and the stigma involved for those it referred to. Romaine (1995) points out that: Although it is popularly believed by bilingual speakers themselves that they mix or borrow because they do not know the term in one language or another, it is often the case that switching occurs most often for items which people know and use in both languages. The bilingual just has a wider choice at least when he or she is speaking with bilingual speakers. In effect, the entire second language system is at the disposal of the code-switcher. (1995, p. 143) A study carried out by Valadez, MacSwan and Martà ­nez

Case Study On Strategic Analysis Management Essay

Case Study On Strategic Analysis Management Essay This will be done through analysing the variety stores industry in which Woolworth operates, the companys past, present and future growth strategies and its current performance. Using recognised strategic tools, the various options available to the company will be recommended and evaluated. METHODOLOGY: The Methodology that will be used to compile this dissertation will mainly be in the form of secondary research. This is largely because the nature of the project requires the co-operation of managers at very strategic level of the company. The Managers understand and have sufficient information on the strategic direction of the organisation. The writer was unable to arrange interviews with the management in the company, as information they have cannot be made public for confidential reasons. As a result it is deemed that the information gathering from other sources within the company would not be as reliable as desired for this topic. Informal primary research interviews will be arranged to gain general information on Woolworths PLCs policies and operations with members of Woolworths store staff. Secondary information will also be used to compile this dissertation due to the availability of reliable and valid information on Woolworths PLC and the variety retail industry. Secondary research will be conducted through examination of annual reports and accounts of the company and its main competitors. To evaluate these, sources such as Mintel Marketing Intelligence Reports and Marketing and Business trade journals will be used. Published academic books on Strategic Management will also be used to assist with the theoretical elements of this dissertation. HISTORY Woolworths is generally described as a variety store. These are organisations that concentrate their efforts on the retailing of a range of products in the lower and more popular price ranges. They provide a walk in, shop and carry facility as the major route of purchasing (home delivery and pre ordering being rare), with open display and self-service merchandising. They are unlikely to be departmentalised. Other related categories include department stores, discounters and specialist shops (also known as category killers) (Oxford English Dictionary 2001). Woolworths was first established by Frank Winfield Woolworth in 1879 with the concept of selling products costing no more than 5 cents. This proved a popular idea with the consumers and the turnover continued to grow. The concept was of no frills shopping, with a range of low priced, non-perishable items. When F.W. Woolworth died in 1919, he had built an empire of 1,081 stores with sales in excess of $118 million per year (Faulkner et al 2003). The company continued to grow and developed internal competencies in areas such as marketing, finance and estates management (Faulkner et al 2003). Faulkner et al also comment that this period of Woolworths history was characterised by the focus of its strategy: it was able to deepen its existing competencies and incrementally expand both its competency base and it knowledge of different market environments (such as suburban retailing) (Faulkner et al pp. 279 2003). However, this was to prove insufficient when discounters and category killers became more prevalent in the market. Wal-Mart had begun trading in general merchandise at low prices and specialist retailers, such a Toys- R- Us provided a destination shopping location for those consumers seeking a particular product, a wider range of products or specialist knowledge about the products. Woolworths began a decline in sales in real terms due to its lack of insight of how to capitalise on the prevalent retail preferences. They failed to take the move to expand their business either into a wider focus or a narrower one, strategies which would have given them a platform from which to take on their competitors. It wasnt until the late 1980s that Woolworths changed their strategy in the United States with their diversification into specialist areas, such as Kids Mart and Little Folks, as well as entering the discount retail business with the Woolco concept. However, they lacked the competencies and capabilities to make up for the time they had lost which had allowed their competitors to establish a strong market lead and in 1995, Kids Mart and Little Folks both closed down. This was on top of the closure of 400 stores in the USA and the sale of 122 Canadian Woolco stores to Wal-Mart (Faulkner et al 2003). One of the specialist areas they had entered into, footwear, did prove to be a success and led Woolworths in the USA to open over 7, 000 athletic footwear stores covering a range of gender and age segments by 1998. The company decided at this stage to change its operating name in the USA to the Venator Group (Faulkner et al 2003) and to reposition itself as a specialist sports footwear reta iler. The groups business in the UK moved in a different direction and kept the original company name. At present, in the UK, Woolworth currently owns around 900 stores selling toys, confectionary, house wares, seasonal products and electronic entertainment. The UK business has also moved into specialist areas with the introduction of MVC home entertainment and electronics which currently has 85 shops, E.UK, which is the largest distributor of home entertainment products in the UK, and the music and video publishing arm VCI (Cornell date unknown). Having become a public company in 1931, Woolworths was briefly taken over in 1982 by Kingfisher, but returned to public ownership again in mid-2001. Woolworths stated aim is to be at the heart of the community and the best loved retailer for kids, home and family leisure (www.woolworthsgroupplc.com). As will be seen Woolworths performance has been variable over recent years and in January 2005, they received a takeover bid from the private equity group, Apax. Although the Woolworths board rejected that offer, a higher one was received four weeks later and is currently under consideration. This means that the future for Woolworths is an uncertain one, with the possibility of a substantial cash injection, but diminished control for the current management team. Should the Apax offer be rejected again, Woolworths is likely to receive offers from its major competitors. PORTERS FIVE FORCE ANALYSIS. Threat of new entrants Despite the high number of retailers dealing with general merchandise, two areas are seen as being particularly relevant. Currently, there are only two catalogue based shopping concepts in the UK, Argos and Next. This market remains highly under-represented considering the success particularly of Argos and it could be expected that the concept will be taken up by more companies in future. These businesses offer the full range of house wares, electrical goods, toys and gifts as available from Woolworth, and have a distinct competitive advantage in their practice of minimal stock holdings in store allowing extra selling space to be released. They may face difficulties in finding the number and size of locations they would need to become a major player in this market, but this could be overcome through the acquisition of an existing retailer. Further new entrants may be seen as foreign companies try to increase their market share. These have already been seen in two main forms. Firstly the specialist retailers who started from nothing in the UK and have achieved good organic growth. Examples include Toys-R-Us, Ikea, Gap, HM, Beneton and Poundstretcher. The second group are those who gain a foothold in the UK market through acquisition. These include Wal-Mart, Brantano and Claires Stores. There is no reason to expect the level of foreign retail interest in the UK to decrease. Bargaining power of suppliers The bargaining power of suppliers has been much diminished with the development of e-commerce. Because of the vast increase in access to information between potential suppliers and buyers, the suppliers pricing strategy may be the only way to secure business. This is likely to increase as more use is made of the Internet. One recent development has been the practice of reverse auctions where a retailer specifies what they want and competing suppliers out bid each other, via a web site, by lowering the price rather than by raising it as in the traditional auction (www.gusplc.com). Once suppliers have been agreed, the large size of this retail sector also ensures buyers can act from a strong negotiating base, as they have significant control over the future health of dedicated suppliers. Recently there has been publicity around the practice of large retailers setting what are seen as unfair terms with suppliers and of insisting on price reductions even though the supplier then operates at a loss (Telegraph 2005). However, it is not expected that any legislation will bring about changes in this situation in the foreseeable future. On the negative side, specialist suppliers such as those supplying mobile phones and computer games, have an increasing amount of power due to the demand for their products. A retailer would need to ensure they have sufficient quantities of a product such as the latest Playstation, for the Christmas market, but are frequently left in the hands of suppliers who can give preferential service to other customers. Threat of substitutes Product substitutions can be used in two different ways. Firstly, as is the strategy of many of the main supermarkets, own brand labels are seen as acceptable substitutions for everyday grocery items. The cost of substitution is low to the customer i.e. they feel that there is little risk because of the loyalty they have to the store. The other type is through introducing higher priced, luxury type items. This strategy can be seen in the Marks and Spencer food sector where they market the products as being superior to other brands.For the variety retailers, the concept of substitution does not seem to have been fully exploited and it is a possible strategy for securing market share in the future. Bargaining power of customers The high level of competition amongst retailers has led to a position of power for the consumer. Having moved from seasonally driven sales events to permanent deals, the aggressiveness of these approaches has also increased. Customers now expect to be able to get three for two offers throughout the year. This puts the retailer at a disadvantage, as they will lose the potential benefits of targeting marketing promotions and means they are continually forced to take the path of competitive pricing. This can lead companies to over rely on the profits made from a limited range of products whereas the rest of the ranges operate at unsustainably low profit margins as loss leaders. Competitive rivalry within the industry The variety stores sector is highly competitive and there is no reason why this should not continue to be the case. It is suggested by retail analysts, Peters, Elworthy and Moore, that the variety store business in the UK has become saturated and that the larger stores are likely to take over or merge with the independents (cited in Potts 1996). Competition from superstores and supermarkets is expected to increase as they add to their ranges of non-food items in a bid to gain a higher share of the overall consumer market (Potts 1996). It is also expected that the differentiation between department stores, variety stores, home shopping and supermarkets will become less sharp as retailers look to alternate channels and increasing product ranges to maximise their turnover (Potts 1996). This will make it difficult for new entrants to enter the market unless they benefit from a unique selling point such as discounting, as has been seen with companies such as Wilkinsons. PEST ANALYSIS: Political Ecological/environmental issues- corporate social responsibility (csr)- The main belief around csr thinking is that the practice of businesses within the capitalist economy to concentrate their efforts on providing wealth for its shareholders, is unacceptable and that companies should take the responsibility of considering the well being of society as a whole (The Economist, January 22nd 2005). It has been countered by Lynch that failure to make a specific statement on ethical issues, does not mean that a company is not fundamentally ethical in the way that it does its business (Lynch 2003). Retailers generally are coming under increasing pressure to ensure they cannot be charged with poor practices with regard to the developing world or the environment. The activities of and publicity around the anti-globalisation movement, may dissuade organisations from expanding their markets abroad, although many see these as a small minority and it is questionable as to whether their activities would cause a company to alter their strategy. It is more likely that they will take the issues into account in terms of having a robust csr policy and when reporting to the media. Woolworths made the following statement on csr in their latest financial statement: During 2003/4, through the CSR Committee, Woolworths Group has continued to work to understand the impacts, both positive and negative, of our business. A proper understanding of the risks we must manage and the opportunities we have to be a catalyst for improvement is a fundamental part of how we do business (www.woolworthsgroupplc.com). Woolworth has specific policies on the areas of timber and chemical usage, a strict code of ethical trading and has set up its own charity (Woolworth Kids First) to provide the opportunity for their employees to help children on a local basis (www.woolworthsgroupplc.com). Whilst Woolworths are outwardly taking their csr seriously, it is an area that has come from nowhere to heavily impact organisations in the past and Woolworth would do well to bear in mind the impacts on Nestle of the baby milk episode and on Marks and Spencer of the sweat shop issues.   Legislation- a new White Paper has been announced that will give retailers the ability to offer legal advice through their own law companies. Dubbed Tesco Law, it provides a further service to encourage the one stop shop approach of the large supermarket chains (BBC D). Supermarket chains, which are one of Woolworths main sources of competition, have had a strategy of offering a one-stop shop opportunity to their customers with the introduction of such facilities as pharmacies, banking facilities and insurance. It is not yet known whether Woolworths is planning to introduce such offerings in its store. Government policies- in the recent budget, Gordon Brown announced a doubling of the threshold for stamp duty on house purchases to  £120,000. This was done to assist particularly first time buyers. Encouraging the housing market will have a beneficial effect on Woolworths house wares, furnishings and DIY ranges, but this will obviously extend to their competitors as well. Government term and change- whilst a General Election is due in the UK, the writer believes that there would be no significant impact, either positive or negative, were the political party currently in power were to remain or change. Economic Home economy situation- the current economic situation in the UK can be seen as a positive factor for Woolworths with low interest rates (2.7%) and high property values leading to record levels of borrowing. However, there are concerns over the level of borrowing as debt levels for have reached more than  £1 trillion (BBC E). It should also be noted that low interest rates would dissuade people who are living off investments from spending, although these tend to be those in retirement who are not considered to be Woolworths target consumer. They have identified that their typical customers are mothers with dependent children living at home(www.woolworthsgroupplc.com). Home economy trends. The Government states that Council tax will rise by an average of 4.1% in the next financial year, the lowest increase in more than ten years (BBC B). In the housing market, figures for changes in house prices vary by source with the Halifax quoting a 0.5% rise and the Nationwide a 0.5% fall (BBC A 2005). There is currently no solid evidence of a crash in the housing market. Should this occur, the impact on the whole retail industry would be immense. Overseas economies and trends- oil prices had risen to a high of $56.15 per barrel in mid March (BBC F). Although they are currently falling, they remain 25% higher for the year (BBC F). Long term, the situation is likely to worsen as demand for oil increases from growing economies such as China, where the economy is growing at 9% and a 10% increase in oil use is predicted for 2005 (BBC F 2005). High oil prices will affect both production and distribution costs for all retailers and will have to be passed onto the consumer through increased prices if alternative savings cannot be made in the value chain. Market and trade cycles- despite good economic factors such as low interest rates, the UK retail economy seems to be slowing down. In March Morrison, Boots and Jessops put out profit warnings and it was reported that data suggests generally poor retail sales and weak spending for the period since Christmas (Verdin 2005). The figures point to a growth in consumer spending of only 0.2% for the last quarter of 2004 the weakest figure for almost two years (Duncan 2005).No specific cause for this downturn has been identified; although the writer would suggest that the publicity around levels of personal debt and the worsening pension crisis may have some influence. Social Consumer attitudes and opinions- Mintels annual lifestyle report has found that consumers are shunning the larger supermarkets and chain stores which they find impersonal, and are much more likely to frequent local, independent shops (cited in BBC C). The implications of this for Woolworth could be positive or negative. To many people, they may be classed as a multi-site retailer and therefore avoided by the consumer. However, the history of the company, its generally high street locations and the nature of the products it sells may lead some to choose it as a shopping venue over large supermarkets. In this area, the history and reputation of Woolworths can only be beneficial. Fashion and role models- the value of celebrity endorsement is well understood by the retail industry and icons such as Jamie Oliver, Delia Smith and David Beckham have all become associated with particular brands. Woolworth identified this pattern and adopted the puppet characters, Woolly and Worth, for their 2004 Christmas campaign. Its success has encouraged them to continue the use of these characters for future advertising campaigns (www.woolworthsgrouppls.com). Technology- the rate of increase in use of cutting edge technology based items has given retailers a highly lucrative new product range. For example, mobile phone technology only became widely available in the early 1980s, but today, approximately one in six of the worlds population owns one and in most of the developed countries, market penetration exceeds 70% (The Economist 2005). As well as the phones themselves, the associated hardware and software are highly popular and unexpected markets have developed, for example, ring tones. There are no indications that these products will do anything other than maintain their growth and the continual developments in technology help to keep the market buoyant. Consumer buying mechanisms/technology- the growth of e-commerce has provided two new strategic directions for retailers. Firstly, there is the opportunity of selling the technology itself- mobile phones, personal computers, software, downloads, games- and secondly, it provides a further channel through which to sell goods. All the major retailers have web sites on which customers can research products, compare prices, order and pay for goods and, as such, there is reasonable competition to encourage consumers to visit particular web sites. An extra dimension is the number of companies who sell only through the Internet. This provides them with a competitive advantage of having lower overheads as premises and shop floor staff are not required. A good example of this is the book retailer Amazon.com who have diversified into clothing, apparel, DVDs and compact discs following their success with books. Further channels have yet to be fully utilised including ordering goods through mobile phone technology and digital television shopping channels. Whilst building their e-commerce business, Woolworths need to ensure it is based on a stable and secure foundation. Although not alone in the experience, they had to close their www.woolies.co.uk site for two months in 2000, when a customer reported that they could view other peoples credit card details on the site (Azeez 2002). Maturity of technology- Radio Frequency Identity Tagging (RFID) is seen as the way forward by many retailers who are undertaking trials of the technology. The most well known is probably Tescos who have been testing it on their high relative value, easily portable items such as razors. Woolworth had been trialing systems but has announced this year that there is no longer funding for the project (www.woolworthsgroupplc.com). They are allowing the technology to reach maturity and should then be able to capitalise on the research done by others. There are some risks with this strategy as it gives the competitors the opportunity to realise the benefits of such technology at an earlier stage. However, it also protects Woolworths from the high level of risk associated with this technology and dealing with issues raised by the Data Protection Act. STRATEGIC GROUP ANALYSIS. The competitors of Woolworth are deemed as being: Discounters those stores which offer stock at particularly low prices and have this as a unique selling point. These would include: Wilkinsons, Asda-WalMart and Poundstretcher Supermarkets stores that historically sold predominantly food items, but have now generally expanded their range to include substantial non-food categories. Examples are: Tesco, Sainsbury, Asda-WalMart and Waitrose Department stores a store which sells a range of items, usually non-food, that divides its goods into distinct areas of the store. In the UK this category includes: MS, Debenhams, House of Fraser, British Home Stores (BHS), and John Lewis Catalogue stores the retailer has a large proportion of the store space dedicated to storage rather than selling space. Few, if any goods are on display and customers select from a catalogue, usually without viewing the product first. Argos and Next are the most well known in the UK. Special ist stores those who concentrate on selling a particular product, which corresponds to part of the Woolworth range. For example, Mothercare and the Early Learning Centre for childrens clothes, BQ, Homebase and Focus DIY for DIY products. Competition is high for all segments of the retail industry which has lead to a blurring of the differences between the categories. Many companies are diversifying into new sectors or aiming for higher market penetration in their existing products. A good example are the supermarkets which have had many years of fierce competition with the main three, Tesco, Sainsbury and Asda, regularly changing places in the retailer league. Their strategy involves adopting a hybrid approach. Cost leadership to some degree by ensuring they maintained competitive pricing for generic products and then offering their own brands at a significantly lower price and differentiation in terms of the range of products they offer by branching out into greater ranges of non-food items. New entrants to the market had to have a unique selling point to appeal to the consumer and found it in terms of outperforming the established market in cost leadership. Aldi, Netto and Lidl have achieved some success in this, p roviding generally unfamiliar brand named, everyday products at a significantly lower price than the main supermarkets. The supermarkets also attempted to increase their market share through increasing their ranges of products and increasing the size of their stores to include superstores and hypermarkets. Other tactics include offering an appearance of being more exclusive (such as Waitrose and Marks and Spencer), positioning as a leader in corporate social responsibility (as in the Co-Operative stores and their Fair-trade products) and seeking new selling opportunities (for example, Marks and Spencers food outlets in service stations). The amalgamation of Asda and WalMart and Morrisons and Safeway showed that some of these strategies left companies with no clear customer focus, trying to be all things to all people, and, with decreasing sales and market share, they became attractive propositions to companies wishing to achieve a foothold in a new geographical location (the south of England in the case of Morrisons and the whole of the UK in the case of WalMart). The biggest threat to Woolworths from these stores has been through product diversification. Initially seeking to offer a one stop shop experience, with selling general merchandise, they then took on specialist stores such as Lloyds pharmacies, and non-retailers with the offerings of financial services. The specialist stores have had to recognise that as well as competing between themselves where products overlap, they are now also having to take on the supermarkets. Music retailers, such as HMV and Virgin, are experiencing pressure from supermarkets, who area able to take them on in terms of cost leadership due to economies of scale and value chain efficiencies, leaving the music stores with the only option of maximising their niche qualities. However, the increasing popularity of e-commerce, both in terms of new retailers and innovative product formats (such as downloads), has put this strategy at risk as their niche status is coming under attack. The implications for Woolworths high street stores are that they are having to rely on appealing to customers who are not seeking a specific item when they enter a store, as they cannot compete on grounds of price or specialism. Their appeal is to the impulse purchaser or those who are buying for someone else and are unsure of what they want. This merges well with the Woolworth strategy of concentrating on Kids and Celebrations. However, if they are positioning themselves as a one stop shop provider for celebration events, they are still in competition with the supermarkets who are able to provide the same items and the opportunity to purchase them whilst doing the regular grocery shopping. In areas where Woolworth has traditionally been seen as a key provider, childrens clothes, again, the supermarkets are offering a cost leader alternative with a strong fashion selling point, by employing well-known designers to support their products (such as George at Asda). Tesco recently showed their power by offering Levis jeans at a price point lower than the manufacturer. Coupled with this is the strategy of other companies to move into this line as a new product or to increase their market share. Key players are Mothercare and The Early Learning Centre. Seen as specialists for the child market, their threat to Woolworth is significant as is that of clothing retailers identifying the market for childrens clothes and exploiting it using their strength in reputation to appeal to the consumer (Gap Kids for example). Whilst all these forms of retail outlet vie for the consumers business, there is an inherent risk for all of them in terms of being able to convert their sales into profit. With competition being so fierce and coming for several different directions, most retailers have to ensure that whilst they are not necessarily the cheapest, they are competitive. The exceptions to this are those that promote themselves as exclusive, such as Waitrose. All these retailers are seeking to reduce their costs through driving savings with the value chain. This has wide reaching implications. As pressure increases to produce the goods at a lower cost, the source of production moves to countries with lower wages and poorer working conditions. As well as affecting the UK economy through increased unemployment, there have been cases where the apparent violation of human rights has produced poor publicity for the retailer. An example of this is the situation Marks and Spencer encountered in the late 1990s. On the one hand they were being accused of being too expensive, so they moved production of their clothes to developing countries. This led to an outcry in the media when companies in the UK who had been supplying them for years, could no longer operate and had to close down. Another strategy to reduce production costs is to use cheaper raw materials, but again, the negative aspects of this receive attention, with the current example being the questions raised over the nutritional value of cheap food products. Within the organisations themselves, streamlining head office personnel in terms of numbers and outsourcing support functions such as recruitment, have shown to be effective in the short term, but the long-term effects of cutting costs in areas such as research and development and training has yet to be seen. SWOT ANALYSIS. Strengths Many of Woolworths strengths come from its long history. They have a recognised internal competence in supply chain management and are able to use this both to reduce their costs and to enter into agreements with organisations that would traditionally be classed as their competitors, such as Tesco. They are using their expertise to provide additional turnover. Their contracts with other companies that utilise their strengths also allow them to minimise the risks to themselves. Having been long established, Woolworth has a good reputation in the UK and is a recognised name on the high street. They have a strong presence in toys, house wares, confectionary and seasonal products markets and due to their size can boast a dominant position over the majority of their suppliers. The perception of consumers is of a high level of corporate social responsibility, having not been subjected to significant poor publicity in any areas. The general economic conditions in the UK are promising although the recently reported slow down in consumer spending must be regarded as a risk. The locations and number of stores operated by Woolworths can be seen as a further strength, especially as consumer preference moves away from out of town shopping. They have made a good move in the adoption of advertising icons, which are considered to be a key element of their marketing campaign. Recent improvements in their stock management systems involving the introduction of an integrated replenishment system and the Kingstore till systems, gives them the ability to manage their stock levels more efficiently, thereby reducing both costs and instances of stock outages. They have undergone a recent review of how they can improve their operational efficiency and this shows a proactive strategy to take on their competition. They have a high level of understanding of customer base which they have developed through their long history in the retail market. This enables them to predict changes in consumer requirements and gives them the potential to maintain a competitive edge. Their decision to increase their use of their own brand products gives them the opportunity to heighten their market penetration in these areas, whilst their expansion of electronic entertainment offerings shows a desire to widen their range within a specific sector. These strategies seem to be successful at present.